Characteristics of study participants
| Characteristic | Male (n=347) | Female (n=512) | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age (y) | <0.001 | ||
| 19–64 | 44.9 (3.3) | 67.5 (2.4) | |
| ≥65 | 55.1 (3.3) | 32.5 (2.4) | |
| Education level | 0.001 | ||
| Elementary school | 25.4 (2.5) | 28.6 (2.3) | |
| Middle school | 13.9 (1.3) | 13.5 (1.7) | |
| High school | 25.2 (2.9) | 35.7 (2.6) | |
| ≥College | 35.5 (3.0) | 22.2 (2.3) | |
| Monthly house income | 0.248 | ||
| Lowest quartile | 27.0 (2.6) | 23.2 (2.3) | |
| 2nd to 4th quartile | 73.0 (2.6) | 76.8 (2.3) | |
| Smoking status | <0.001 | ||
| Nonsmoker |
84.6 (2.4) | 96.6 (1.0) | |
| Current smoker | 15.4 (2.4) | 3.4 (1.0) | |
| Heavy alcohol drinker |
12.0 (2.2) | 1.3 (0.6) | <0.001 |
| Aerobic physical activity (%) |
40.8 (3.2) | 39.5 (2.6) | 0.738 |
| Handgrip strength (kg) | 33.7±0.5 | 20.9±0.3 | <0.001 |
| Low handgrip strength |
15.7 (2.0) | 24.8 (2.1) | 0.002 |
| Masticatory difficulty (+) | 70.2 (2.8) | 62.0 (2.4) | 0.031 |
| Body mass index (kg/m2) | 23.7±0.2 | 23.7±0.2 | 0.995 |
| Hypertension | 45.5 (2.9) | 37.4 (2.5) | 0.032 |
| Diabetes mellitus | 21.7 (2.6) | 11.2 (1.6) | <0.001 |
Values are presented as % (standard error) or mean±standard error.
aDefined as never-smoker and ex-smoker combined. bDefined as drinking >7 drinks in one place at least twice per week for male or drinking >5 drinks in one place at least twice per week for female. cDefined as engaged in at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity per week, at least 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity per week, or a combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activity (e.g., 1 minute of vigorous-intensity physical activity and 2 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity) for at least 75 minutes per week. dDefined as Low handgrip strength was divided into two categories. (<26 kg for male, <18 kg for female) Handgrip strength was defined as the average handgrip strength of the dominant hand.
P-values were obtained by chi-square test or independent t-test.